Bénédicte Sère, Columbia University New York
Abstract: This blog post examines the role of Pope Benedict XIII (1394–1423) in re-purposing Jewish-Christian polemics during the Great Western Schism (1378–1417). As a native of Aragon, Benedict’s early participation in Jewish-Christian disputations, such as the Tortosa Disputation (1413–1414), informed his rhetorical and theological strategies. Facing political isolation and ecclesiastical challenges, he leveraged anti-Judaic policies to consolidate authority and appeal to anti-Jewish sentiment in Iberia. His actions underscore the duality of theological confidence and political vulnerability, as well as the interconnection of minority and majority histories in late medieval Europe. By weaponizing polemics against both Jewish communities and rivals inside the Church, Benedict XIII illustrates how intellectual traditions can be instrumentalised in challenging times.
Pedro de Luna, who became Pope Benedict XIII (1394–1423), offers a striking example of how intellectual traditions and theological polemics can be repurposed in moments of political crisis. A native of Aragon, Benedict XIII was deeply shaped by his participation in Jewish-Christian disputations, such as the 1379 encounter with Shem Tov Ibn Shaprut in Pamplona. While direct accounts of this specific event are scarce, other well-documented debates from the 1370s, such as those in Ávila and Burgos, provide valuable insight into his development as a formidable disputant. This early immersion in anti-Jewish argumentation not only solidified his theological training but also provided him with rhetorical tools that he would later repurpose to navigate the complexities of the Great Western Schism.
The Great Schism (1378–1417) fractured the unity of Christendom, with multiple claimants to the papacy competing for legitimacy. Benedict XIII, elected by the Avignon obedience, faced particular challenges as his support waned across Europe, culminating in his condemnation at the Council of Pisa (1409). Isolated politically and ecclesiastically, he turned to anti-Judaic policies as a means of consolidating his authority. This strategy relied on a twofold logic: first, to position himself as the defender of Christian orthodoxy; and second, to appeal to his Iberian base, where anti-Jewish sentiment was deeply entrenched.
Benedict’s most notable engagement in Jewish-Christian polemics as pope was the Tortosa Disputation (1413–1414). This event, orchestrated under his direct supervision and Geronimo de Santa Fe’s one, sought to force Jewish leaders into public debates aimed at demonstrating the supremacy of Christian doctrine. While framed as intellectual exchanges, these disputations were deeply coercive, designed to humiliate Jewish participants and pressure them into conversion. The aftermath of Tortosa, including the promulgation of the bull Etsi doctoris gentium, marked a high point in Benedict’s anti-Judaic policy. This legislation imposed severe restrictions on Jewish communities, from censorship of texts to social isolation, further marginalizing them within Christian society.
Historians have highlighted the connection between Benedict XIII’s anti-Jewish policies and his political vulnerability. Frank Talmage, for instance, argued that Benedict viewed the conversion of Iberian Jews as a means of strengthening his papal claims, particularly in the eyes of the Council of Constance (1414–1418). Similarly, Robert Chazan has noted the paradoxical nature of Christian aggressiveness during this period, characterized by both confidence in their theological position and deep anxieties about ecclesiastical authority. Benedict’s actions reflect this duality, as he weaponized anti-Jewish polemics not only against Jewish communities but also indirectly against his rivals within the Church.
One of Benedict’s key innovations was his ability to adapt the argumentative frameworks of Jewish-Christian disputations to the intra-Church conflicts of the Schism. His training in polemics provided him with a repertoire of strategies that he redirected toward his opponents within the obediential sphere. By drawing on familiar structures of argumentation, he was able to present himself as a scholar-pope defending orthodoxy against heresy, whether in the form of Jewish doctrine or the claims of rival papal factions.
Recent scholarship has shed new light on Benedict’s motives and methods. Christian Jörg, for example, has interpreted his anti-Jewish policies as opportunistic, designed to shore up his waning support on the Iberian Peninsula. At the same time, scholars like Eleazar Gutwirth and Carlos del Valle Rodríguez have highlighted the broader context of late medieval Spain, where anti-clericalism and challenges to ecclesiastical authority shaped the dynamics of Jewish-Christian relations. Figures such as Vincent Ferrer and Pablo de Santa María, closely associated with Benedict, shared a common vision of reducing Jewish presence through a combination of preaching, legislation, and public disputation.
Benedict XIII’s reliance on anti-Judaic rhetoric underscores the interconnectedness of minority and majority histories in late medieval Europe. As Kenneth R. Stow observes, the histories of Jewish and Christian communities are “inextricably entwined,” shaped by mutual influences and conflicts. In Benedict’s case, his anti-Jewish policies were not only theological but also deeply political, reflecting his struggle to assert authority in a fragmented Christendom. By examining the intersections of Jewish-Christian polemics and the Great Schism, we gain a clearer understanding of how intellectual traditions can be instrumentalised in moments of crisis, with lasting consequences for both majority and minority communities.
Photo: Woodcut by Johann von Armssheim (1483) depicting a disputation between Christian and Jewish scholars, in: Soncino Blaetter, Berlin, 1929. Jerusalem, B. M. Ansbacher Collection, designed by Pete Russell, Faringdon, Oxon.