Networks – Blog der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Iberomediaevistik

Courts and Craftspeople in the Late Medieval Crown of Aragón

Eva-Maria Cersovsky, Universität zu Köln

Abstract: The research project outlined in this contribution aims at offering new insights into an important but underexplored group of actors at late medieval royal courts by putting craftspeople at the centre of analysis. It takes the courts of the kings and queens of the Crown of Aragón as its focus to investigate the multifaceted relationships they formed with artisans from the end of the thirteenth to the beginning of the fifteenth century. The project pursues three main objectives: First, it explores and compares the forms of affiliation, the status, tasks, functions, material resources, and working conditions of the many different artisans serving the royal households. Second, it examines the role of courts as spaces of artisanal training, production and knowledge, cooperation and competition. Third, it illuminates the activities of craftspeople in-between courtly and civic environments. The project’s findings thus promise to foster a better understanding of artisans’ economic and social interactions with royal households, while also offering new perspectives for studying court economy and court culture.

Late medieval courts attracted a wide variety of different craftspeople.¹ Numerous experts specialising in the food, wood, metal, or textile crafts were commissioned by princely and royal households to create products of various kinds. It is well known that medieval rulers both acquired large quantities of artisanal luxury objects and needed countless craft products for everyday use. Noble patrons, courtly material culture, and patterns of consumption have been at the focus of historical scholarship for quite some time. However, to date, only a few historians have attempted to put artisans, the makers of courtly objects, at the centre of monographic studies in order to systematically determine the multifaceted work-related and social relationships they formed with late medieval courts.

My book project (Habilitation), still in its early stages and tentatively outlined in the following, aims at filling this gap by taking the late medieval courts of the kings and queens of the Crown of Aragón as its focus. The Aragonese courts hold particular potential for the study of craftspeople since they did not only constitute important political and social centres formed around a ruler but were also dynamic economic and cultural hubs within the Mediterranean, attracting various people from different social and religious groups, regions, and cultures. They employed, to just name a few examples, Catalan bakers, French tailors, or German goldsmiths, Jewish candle makers, Muslim construction workers, or Christian carpenters in a variety of different institutional affiliations and socio-economic interdependencies. Some artisans also performed services for queens and kings that went beyond their specific craft, such as buying goods for the royal household, joining diplomatic missions, or functioning as administrators involved in the foundation of monasteries or the overseeing of royal mills. These ways in which different craftspeople were connected to the kings’ and queens’ courts economically and socially have yet to be studied in a comprehensive and comparative approach, as has the question of how royal courts functioned as sites of artisanal production, collaboration, and knowledge – with both patrons and craftspeople as active participants.

Since the courts of the Crown of Aragón are documented exceptionally well, especially from the thirteenth century onwards, it is possible to trace such questions in a wide variety of sources, mainly housed in the Arxiu de la Corona d’Aragó in Barcelona. The project will, for example, draw on court ceremonials characterising court personnel and their duties as well as on various household accounts that document payments to artisans holding court offices and to many other craftspeople for commissions of differing nature, often including detailed descriptions of the final products and their materials. It will also utilize a small number of account books written by the artisans themselves which have survived in the royal archives, and make use of the numerous royal chancellery registers documenting contracts, letters, privileges granted to artisans, or recommendations of specific craftspeople to other institutions. Additionally, I will employ inventories which list objects in varying detail and frequently mention who created them, where they were made, and/or – in the case of objects in relation to specific court offices – who used and took care of them.

Seeing the quantity and variety of available sources, the project’s main focus is on a ‘long fourteenth century’, from the reign of James II (1291–1327) to the reign of Martin I (1396–1410). This period also holds an important place within scholarly discussions on how artisans’ relationships to courts developed over time, both in the Crown of Aragón and other regions. These debates concern, for instance, the perception and status of craftspeople as ‘artisans’ or ‘artists’, the inclusion of artisans into the circle of royal familiares, or the emergence of new legal and institutional forms of ‘court craft’ (‘Hofhandwerk’) or ‘court art (‘Hofkunst’) and their position between court and city.

Contributing to these discussions and expanding the state of research, the project adopts a multifaceted, comparative approach. It employs the terms ‘craftspeople’ and ‘artisans’ in a broad sense to grasp and include not only renowned individuals but all people who used their hands and tools to produce, repair, or redesign products, including food as well as objects made from different materials. It also starts from the written documentation and not from objects or architecture still present today. This way, the project seeks to make a systematic effort at both establishing and comparing the variety of craftspeople connected to Aragonese courts, thereby bridging the common division between groups of different objects, materials, and/or artisans. Furthermore, it focuses on both the kings’ and the queens’ households over a longer period of time to delineate similarities and differences in the artisanal personnel serving them. As first case studies suggest, this approach promises to yield fruitful results regarding the activities, status, and career options of craftspeople working across different courts. Following this general methodological framework, the project has three main objectives that build on one another:

First, it seeks to investigate which artisans were integrated into the courts’ economic and social networks and in what ways, including how these connections were formed in the first place. Answering these questions involves inquiries into the social backgrounds, status, tasks, functions, working conditions, material resources, and careers of different craftspeople serving royal courts. Without pursuing the goal of a detailed prosopography or comprehensive network analysis, the available, relevant personal data concerning the artisans will be collected in a database, which will then form the basis for more detailed case studies on a selected number of individual craftspeople and groups of artisans. Moreover, approaching the different types of connections between craftspeople and courts necessitates semantic analyses, for example, regarding the (variable and shifting) meanings connected to titles of court offices, such as panicer, or denominations like de la casa de la senyora reyna/ del senyor rey.

Second, the project aims at analysing how royal courts functioned as spaces of artisanal production and knowledge, cooperation and competition. This includes questions on forms of training and the transmission of knowledge, on artisanal migration and interreligious collaborations and/or conflicts. Understanding artisans working for the Aragonese courts as experts possessing specialized knowledge and skills to understand, (re-)design, and invent things, I will build on the insights of both art historical research and studies on material culture to examine repositories of knowledge connected to objects, practices, and their textual representations, such as descriptions in account books and inventories. By examining experts from different regions and religious groups gathered at Aragonese courts, the project will also draw on concepts of ‘cultural brokerage’ and discuss whether artisans can be conceived as ‘brokers’ even if their primary aim might not have been cultural mediation as such.

Third, the research project seeks to illuminate the interplay between courtly and urban craft production and the positions of artisans in-between courts and cities – spaces with permeable boundaries. Exploring these aspects brings into focus, for example, the use of urban infrastructure, the role of artisanal court personnel as intermediaries hiring additional workers, or the existence of royal privileges obtained by individuals or craft groups regulating their status in relation to civic norms and institutions. Choosing one or two cities with royal residences as case studies, such as Barcelona, València, or Zaragoza, this part of the project also tentatively aims at including civic sources. Municipal ordinances, the documentation of confraternities and guilds, inventories, and other notarial documents help trace the activities of artisans in urban contexts and may also be used to conduct further prosopographical research on the identities of selected craftspeople. These sources, however, will mostly be consulted after the examination of the royal documentation.

Based on rich source material and building on insights as well as approaches of interdisciplinary scholarship, the project thus seeks to foster a better understanding of craftspeople as an important but underexplored group of actors connected to late medieval courts within the Crown of Aragón. Its findings promise to shed new light on artisans’ economic and social agency in the context of royal households and to offer new perspectives on both court economy and court culture.

Selected Bibliography

Antenhofer, Christina: Inventories as Texts and Artefacts. Methodological Approaches and Challenges. In: Österreichische Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaften 32,3 (2021), pp. 7–46.

Aymerich Bassols, Montserrat: Jaume Copí, un brodador flamenc al servei de la familia reial: de Pere el Cerimoniós a Violant de Bar i Maria de Luna. In: Terés Tomàs, Maria Rosa (ed.): Catalunya i l’Europa septentrional a l’entorn de 1400. Circulació de mestres, obres i models artístics. Rome 2016 (IRCVM Medieval Cultures 5), pp. 15–52.

Beauchamp, Alexandra (ed.): Les entourages princiers à la fin du Moyen âge: une approche quantitative. Textes issus de la journée d’études organisée à l’Université de Limoges avec la Casa de Velázquez, 6 novembre 2009. Madrid 2013 (Collection de la Casa de Velázquez 134).

Campbell, Stephen John (ed.): Artists at Court: Image-Making and Identity 1300–1550. Chicago 2004.

Córdoba de la Llave, Ricardo: Los oficios medievales. Tecnología, producción, trabajo. Madrid 2017 (Temas de historia medieval 7).

Cosmen Alonso, María Concepción/ Herráez Ortega, María Victoria/ Pellón Gómez de Rueda, Adela María (eds.): El intercambio artístico entre los reinos hispanos y las cortes europeas en la baja Edad Media. León 2009.

Domenge Mesquida, Joan: Argenters i marxants de “coses de grans preus” a la cort d’Aragô (ca. 1380–1420). In: Brouquet, Sophie/ García Marsilla, Juan Vicente (ed.): Mercados del lujo, mercados del arte. El gusto de las elites mediterráneas en los siglos XIV y XV. València 2015, pp. 349–356.

Eichberger, Dagmar/ Lorentz, Philippe/ Tacke, Andreas (eds.): The Artist between Court and City (1300–1600) / L’artiste entre la Cour et la Ville / Der Künstler zwischen Hof und Stadt. Petersberg 2017.

Español Bertran, Francesca: L’art dels reis catalans: esplendor i riquesa de la Corona d’Aragó. Barcelona 2010 (Arts 2).

Füssel, Marian/ Rexroth, Frank/ Schürmann, Inga (eds.): Praktiken und Räume des Wissens: Expertenkulturen in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Göttingen 2019.

García Marsilla, Juan Vicente: Maestros de ultramar: artistas italianos y franceses al servicio de la monarquía aragonesa (siglos XIV–XV). In: Narbona Vizcaíno, Rafael (ed.): La Mediterrània de la Corona d’Aragó, segles XIII–XVI & VII Centenari de la Sentència Arbitral de Torrellas, 1304–2004. XVIII Congrés d’Història de la Corona d’Aragó, València 2004, 9–14 setembre. Vol. 2. València 2005, pp. 1907–1922.

Jaspert, Nikolas: Mendicants, Jews and Muslims at Court in the Crown of Aragon: Social Practice and Inter-Religious Communication. In: von der Höh, Marc/ Jaspert, Nikolas/ Oesterle, Jenny Rahel (eds.): Cultural Brokers at Mediterranean Courts in the Middle Ages. Paderborn 2013 (Mittelmeerstudien 1), pp. 107–148.

Molina Castellà, Anna: L’argenter de la Casa del Senyor Rei: una distinció laboral de prestigi. In: Yarza Luaces, José Joaquín (ed.): L’Artista-artesà medieval a la Corona d’Aragó. Lleida 1999, pp. 365–383.

Molina Figueras, Joan: Gli artisti del re nel Trecento aragonese. In: Donato, Maria Monica (ed.): L’artista medievale. Atti del convegno internazionale di studi, Modena, 17–19 Novembre 1999. Pisa 2008 (Annali della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, Classe di Lettere e Filosofia. Quaderni 4, 16.2003), pp. 193–213.

Mutgé i Vives, Josefina: Artesanos barceloneses al servicio de Alfonso el Benigno (1327–1336). In: Aragón en la edad media 19 (2006), pp. 407–416.

Povill Salas, Marina: El arte como herramienta de poder durante el reinado de Jaime II el justo (1291–1327). Las cuatro etapas de su política artística. In: Bargalló Escrivà, Maria (ed.): Recerca en humanitas 2021. Tarragona 2022, pp. 153–170.

Schadek, Hans: Die Familiaren der aragonesischen Könige des 14. und beginnenden 15. Jahrhunderts. In: Spanische Forschungen der Goerresgesellschaft – Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Kulturgeschichte Spaniens 32 (1988), pp. 1–148.

Smith, Pamela H.: From Lived Experience to the Written Word: Reconstructing Practical Knowledge in the Early Modern World. Chicago 2022.

Schulz, Knut: Fremde (Kunst-)Handwerker, Gewerbegruppen und Bedienstete an der päpstlichen Kurie (ca. 1400–1527). In: Jamme, Armand/ Poncet, Olivier (eds.): Offices et papauté (XIVe–XVIIe siècle): Charges, hommes, destins. Rome 2005 (Collection de l’École Française de Rome 334), pp. 197-213.

Terés Tomàs, Maria Rosa/ Vicens, Teresa: Violant de Bar i Maria de Castella: promoció espiritual i mecenatge/ Violant de Bar and Maria of Castile: Spiritual Promotion and Artistic Patronage. Barcelona 2015 (Lliçons 6).

Warnke, Martin: The Court Artist: On the Ancestry of the Modern Artist. New York et al. 1993 (Ideas in Context 28).

Photo: December Calendar Page, Baking Bread, in: Psalter by an unknown artist/ maker, mid-1200s, Bruges (possibly), Belgium, in: The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, Ms. 14 (85.MK.239), fol. 8v (Detail). Digital image courtesy of the Getty’s Open Content Program, URL: [https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/object/105TRQ] (03.07.2024).

References to some publications relevant to the project can be found in a selected bibliography at the end of the contribution. [↩]

Martin of León – Crusade preacher between the Iberian Peninsula and the Holy Land

Alexander Marx, Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg

Zusammenfassung: Dieser kurze Beitrag umreißt die Perspektive und Ergebnisse meines gegenwärtigen Forschungsprojekts (finanziert durch den FWF [J 4576-G]), das sich dem Augustiner Chorherren Martin von Léon widmet. Das Projekt beschäftigt sich vor allem mit Martins Tätigkeit als Kreuzzugsprediger, besonders im Dritten Kreuzzug (1187-92), sowie seiner Zugehörigkeit zum Netzwerk der entstehenden Universität von Paris. Sein umfassendes Werk, besonders sein Liber Sermonum (ca. 1300 Seiten), erlaubt eine eingehende Untersuchung seines Bildungshintergrundes, seiner Predigtagenda und seiner Kreuzzugsideen. Dies zeigt wie ein Protagonist von iberischer Herkunft in diverse signifikante Phänomene über die iberische Halbinsel hinaus involviert war.

Abstract: This short essay outlines the scope and results of my current research project, funded by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) [J 4576-G], and devoted to the Augustinian canon Martin of Léon. The project focusses on Martin’s role as a crusade preacher, specifically in the Third Crusade (1187-92), as well as his belonging to the network of the emerging university of Paris. His vast oeuvre, in particular his Liber Sermonum (c.1300 pages), permits ample examination of his educational background, preaching agenda, and crusade ideas, showing how a protagonist of Iberian origin was involved in several significant phenomena beyond the Peninsula.

Martin of León (c.1130-1203) ended his life as an Augustinian canon in San Isidoro in León – this says his Vita, penned by Lucas of Tuy (d.1249), and this shaped hitherto the modern perception of this figure when finding consideration occasionally among scholars. However, the Vita remains silent on what Martin did before the 1190s (save for three chapters on his childhood) – this is a remarkable gap for a text that claims to be a Saint’s Life. My research investigates this suspicious lacuna, and Martin’s own vast work of more than 1700 pages can tell us much about his activities and whereabouts, critically his main opus, the Liber Sermonum, counting c.1300 pages, an immense compendium of preaching material for several purposes. This work significantly sheds new light on several phenomena, including the crusade movement, Iberia’s involvement in it, preaching efforts before the Friars, and Martin’s educational background in the university of Paris. It seems likely that Martin spent the bulk of his life outside the Peninsula (probably the c.40 years that the Vita omits); his work betrays an education clearly indebted to Paris; he harvests especially the Glossa Ordinaria and Peter Lombard’s works, making it likely that he was Peter’s student in the 1150s. The Liber Sermonum betrays also much interest in the crusades and Jerusalem, announcing already in its prologue that it has the goal of providing material for preaching against four groups: pagans (understand Muslims); heretics; Jews; and philosophers (understand Scholasticism). The purpose of crusade preaching is thus made explicit; it forms an essential purpose of this vast work. However, since this figure was moving between the Peninsula and other parts of Europe (according to the Vita: Paris, Tours, Southern France, Canterbury, Rome, Constantinople, and the Holy Land), it remains a subject of ongoing research in which contexts and arenas Martin preached the crusade (and other matters), and what his work may tell us about the overall concept of crusading and its pertinence to the Iberian Peninsula.

The remainder of this essay will outline the argument and scope of four articles that this project has yielded (which are either on the way or in preparation):

(1) A first article compared Martin with other preachers of the Third Crusade (1187-92), the expedition that was probably Martin’s prime concern. It unearthed numerous parallels in ideas and imagery that substantiate Martin’s belonging to the Parisian network and that he preached this expedition alongside his colleagues (according to the Vita, at the time in Italy, where also other important preachers were sojourning), before he himself joined some crusade contingent (the Vita tells us that he was in the Holy Land at the time, for a period of two years, and serving the Knights Hospitaller). The article delivers a case study of Martin’s Sermo 22, a sermon text for Maundy Thursday, and its place in the preaching of the Third Crusade.

(2) A second article tackles a specific branch of Paris masters, the so-called reformers, that upheld a suspicious attitude towards the new scholastic methods of the time and their use of ancient philosophy. Also Martin belongs to this branch: already his prologue announces the goal of spurning the teachings of philosophers. This article examines Martin as a case study, discussing how and why he rejects these new approaches, and how this attitude intersects with his crusade preaching, specifically via identifying philosophers with heretics. His ample concern with these new approaches substantiates his involvement in the Parisian milieu.

(3) A third article scrutinizes the Vita, analyzing its purpose and the image it constructs of Martin, while comparing it with the insights that the Liber Sermonum provides. This article argues that Lucas of Tuy had an interest to establish a specifically Iberian or Leonese saint; this is why he omits more than half of Martin’s life – Martin was not in the Iberian Peninsula in these decades. Otherwise, the comparison of Vita and Liber Sermonum nicely corroborates Martin’s activities: for example, the Vita tells us that he encountered heretics in Southern France in the early 1190s (before entering the monastery in León), while the Liber Sermonum betrays ample interest in the issue of heretics, devoting one section specifically to the Cathars. Likewise, Martin’s ambitions are corroborated by several papal letters of the time that call for crusading in Iberia, parallel to the Eastern expeditions (especially Clement III’s letters in 1188).

(4) A fourth article will incorporate the project’s final results, remaining currently still work-in-progress: Martin’s Liber Sermonum is an exceptional work in structure and length; it cannot be identified with any established genre, even though its paratext says throughout that this is preaching material (its title, its prologue, and its organization according to the liturgical calendar entitling sections as if they were sermons for specific feasts). However, many of these ‘sermon texts’ are way too lengthy for being just sermons ready for use and, thus, the question of these texts’ nature arises. This article investigates this question, reaching some conclusions about the purpose of the Liber Sermonum, the historical context in which it needs to be placed, its bold testimony for late twelfth century preaching, preceding the Friars in many efforts, and finally Martin’s ambitions to implement Parisian methods and ideas of crusading on the Iberian Peninsula, thus foreshadowing what several papal legates would attempt in subsequent decades.

Martin’s work provides intriguing insights into the world of the late twelfth century, its ample concern with crusading and popular preaching, and the involvement of the Iberian Peninsula in these matters. Even though remaining perhaps marginal to the overall efforts of the Latin West, Martin’s case shows how a cleric of Iberian origin departed for Paris like so many others did from several European regions, then got quite around as a preacher, being involved in several significant phenomena, and finally ended up again at home, bringing his vast Liber Sermonum with him (its only copy was penned in San Isidoro around 1200), a fact that suggests that it was Martin’s explicit intention to implement this preaching material eventually for purposes in León, crusading and otherwise. His Vita tells us, for example, that he was involved in the destruction of the Jewish castle in León in 1196, while the Liber Sermonum holds extensive anti-Jewish material. This project established thus Martin as both a diligent crusade preacher and an important protagonist of the Iberian Peninsula, at a time when much was under development in both areas. His case study shows how worthwhile it is to move beyond classic historiographical sources and to consider the vast surviving sermon material of the Middle Ages (around 140 000 texts between 1150 and 1350 alone): the Liber Sermonumbetrays in an excellent way how such sources can provide vital but hitherto overlooked insights into several historical phenomena.

Photo: Saladin entreißt dem fliehenden König Guido von Lusignan das Heilige Kreuz, in: Chronica Maiora, URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Saladin_Guy.jpg?uselang=de] (11.01.2023).