Franciscans – Blog der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Iberomediaevistik

Mendicants and Conquest in the Crown of Aragon – Mallorca and Sardinia compared

Robert Friedrich, Universität Greifswald

Zusammenfassung: Die Bettelorden sind nicht die ersten, die einem in den Sinn kommt, wenn man an Eroberung denkt. In diesem Blogbeitrag wird die Beteiligung von Franziskanern und Dominikanern an zwei Eroberungen der Krone Aragon untersucht: Das muslimische Mayūrqa und Sardinien. Der Autor vergleicht die Rolle der Brüder in diesen Feldzügen und wie die “Art” der Eroberung ihr Handeln beeinflusste. Die Mendikanten spielten bei beiden Eroberungen eine wichtige Rolle – vor allem in der Zeit nach der militärischen Eroberung –, aber ihre Rolle unterschied sich je nachdem, ob die eroberte Bevölkerung christlich war oder nicht. Der Autor kommt zu dem Schluss, dass die religiösen Orden gute Voraussetzungen mitbrachten, um an beiden Arten von Eroberungen teilzunehmen, und dass sich die Könige bei der Eroberung und Integration neuer Gebiete in hohem Maße auf sie stützten.

Abstract: The Mendicant orders are not the first group that comes to mind when one thinks of conquest. This blog post explores the involvement of Franciscans and Dominicans in two conquests by the Crown of Aragon: Muslim Mayūrqa and Sardinia. The author compares the roles of the friars in these campaigns and how the “type“ of conquest influenced their actions. The Mendicants played an important part in both conquests – especially in the aftermath of the military campaign – but their role differed depending on whether the conquered population was Christian or not. The author concludes that religious orders were well-equipped to take part in both types of conquest and heavily relied on by the kings to conquer and integrate new territories.

The 13^th and 14^th centuries were the critical periods in the Mediterranean expansion of the medieval Crown of Aragon: The Balearic Islands, Valencia, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica all fell under some form of Aragonese rule, the Crown even established influence in the Eastern Mediterranean. In this blog post, I would like to bring together the study of Mendicant orders and military conquests by comparing the involvement of the Mendicant orders during and after two of the abovementioned conquests: Muslim Mayūrqa (629/1229) and Sardinia (1323). They significantly differ in one particular aspect: the religion of the conquered.¹ I aim to explore in which ways religious actors like the Mendicants took part in those clearly political campaigns and how the “type” of conquest influenced their actions.

When James I started his military campaign in 1229, two Dominican friars accompanied his army: Miguel de Fabra and Berenguer de Castellbisbal. When recounting the events almost half a century later, the king accorded Miguel de Fabra a particular importance for the endeavour’s success. His reputation stemmed from two functions he fulfilled, both during the campaign and after the successful conquest of Madina Mayūrqa on 31 December 1229. The first function is preaching the crusade and the moral support of the army and king. The description of how King James wanted the friars’ doings to be remembered is a striking example of the royal-mendicant symbiosis and merits to be appreciated in full:

And nobody ever saw an army that fulfilled its duties so well; just as was preached by a Dominican friar who was called Friar Michael. He was in the army and was a reader in theology, and his companion was brother Berenguer de Castellbisbal. And when he gave absolution (which he had permission to do from the bishops), everybody would bring everything that he told them they should, whether it was wood or stone. Even the knights did not wait for the foot soldiers to bring things, but helped in every way they could. In front of them in their saddles they would bring by horse the stones for the fenevols. And the men of their houses did the same to supply the trebuchets, delivering the stones on frames that they had tied with cords round their necks. Indeed, when we ordered them to go with armoured horses to guard the war machines by night, or by day to guard those digging the tunnels, or to do whatever else that was necessary for the army, if it was ordered fifty should go, a hundred would go.²

The second function concerns something that could be summarised as symbolic communication for the king:

And we ordered two Dominican brothers to enter, in order to guard the king’s chambers and treasure, and two knights with them, good and prudent men, so that with their squires they should help to protect and watch over the Almudaina, as we were very tired and wished to rest, as the sun had already set.³

Tired after a long siege and his final victory, the king ordered two Dominican friars to stand guard in front of his chambers together with two knights, showing the prominent symbolic place of the friars not only for James’ spiritual well-being but also for his self-fashioning half a century later when writing his autobiography. They were also supposed to watch that none of the army’s members started the town looting, further underscoring their perceived influence over the troops’ morale. Miguel de Fabra then celebrated the first Christian mass on Mallorcan soil, using an improvised altar inside the Almudaina palace. This altar later became the centre of the chapel of Nuestra Senora de la Victoria y San Miguel (another reference to Friar Miguel), around which the first Dominican convent was built, right in the middle of the city and not on the outskirts as it was usual for Mendicant convents. This convent stood at the beginning of Christian Aragonese Mallorca and was closely linked to the royal occupation of the palace. Christian conquest and symbolic Christianisation thus went hand in hand.

The situation was different when Infant Alfonso conquered Sardinia in 1323. It was no crusade, although the campaignwas authorised and somewhat supported by the papacy, as James had gotten the island as a papal fiefdom in 1295.Alfonso found an already Christian society that needed to be integrated into his realms. He relied heavily on religious orders too, but the goals differed. Instead of creating from the ground up, the functions of the orders focussed on the “Catalanisation” of the island’s population and on exerting influence over them through religious actors. Alfonso and his advisors utilised all levels of the hierarchy of the Mendicant orders. The first measure to strengthen the Catalan religious impact on the island was the demand for three Franciscan friars from Catalonia to be sent there by the provincial minister in 1323. When Alfonso’s brother later asked the king to send one of them back, he refused because the friar was supposed to establish a new Franciscan convent. This leads to the second step of Mendicant involvement: the foundation of new convents and the support of existing convents undertaken by the king. But not only did Alfonso send Catalan friars to Sardinia, he also tried to banish Italian, especially Pisan friars, on multiple occasions, accusing them of conspiring against him. The most important structural change occurred in 1329 when Pope John XXII decided – upon the king’s wish – that all the convents of the four Mendicant orders should thereupon be part of their respective provinces of Aragon and be severed from the different Italian provinces they belonged to before. As the provincial ministers were usually on close terms with the king, this attachment meant a potentially more significant influence on the Sardinian convents and a lesser influence by Italian secular and religious powers. The fourth step concerns the dioceses of Sardinia. Compared to Mallorca, the primary difference was that a net of bishops was already in place, so the king could only try to exert influence when a bishopric became vacant. Already in 1325, Alfonso and his father James had instructed their ambassador to the pope that he should propose different candidates for potentially vacant bishoprics. For Sardinia, they mainly proposed Mendicant Friars well-known to the king and infant. Apparently, Mendicants were seen fit for the difficult task of administering a Sardinian diocese with little promising income.

The key to Mendicant involvement in conquests lies in the fact that conquering and governing a territory are two completely different stories. Unlike the military orders, Mendicants did not fight, but they could have a strong influence on the population as well as members of the royal family. The preaching of a crusade was thus an essential factor, but only possible when the campaign was directed against a non-Christian territory.⁴ The most critical role the Mendicants played in these contexts usually came after the military campaign. This is true for both the Mallorcan and the Sardinian cases. The type of conquest influenced the degree to which they were involved. Whereas the Mendicants played an important part in other campaigns against non-Christians (be it Muslims in the Mediterranean or pagans in Eastern Europe) in order to build a new Christian society, their role in the Sardinian campaign was facilitated by the papal approval following the treaty of Anagni. The focus here was on the “Catalanisation” of the Christian population. Despite these differences, one can conclude that religious orders were – in the eyes of the kings – well equipped to effectively take part in both types of conquest. They also benefitted from their close relationship with the king, who, in turn, heavily relied on monks, friars, nuns, convents, and monasteries to conquer and integrate new territories.

Photo: Dominican friars watch over a conquered town, in: Llibre dels feyts, f. 41r, URL: [https://mdc.csuc.cat/digital/collection/manuscritBC/id/28206] (03.05.2023).

I have analysed the role of the Mendicant and other religious orders during and after the conquest of Mallorca in an upcoming article: Preaching – Fighting – Organising. Religious Orders and the Christian Conquest of Mayūrqa/Mallorca (627–629 / 1229–1231), in: Sven Jaros et al. (Ed.), Changes of Monarchical Rule in Late Medieval Societies in Comparison. Negotiations – Actors – Ambivalences [in preparation]. The involvement of Mendicants in the conquest of Sardinia is an integral part of my phd-project. See also: Jill Webster, The early catalan Mendicants in Sardinia, in: Biblioteca francescana sarda 2 (1988), 5–18; Maria Giuseppina Meloni, Ordini religiosi e politica regia nella Sardegna catalano-aragonese della prima metà del XIV secolo, in: Anuario de Estudios Medievales 24 (1994), 831–854. [↩]
The Book of Deeds of James I of Aragon. A Translation of the Medieval Catalan Llibre dels Feits. Ed. Damian Smith / Helena Buffery. (Crusade Texts in Translation) London / New York 2003, ch. 69, S. 94. [↩]
Ibid., ch. 87, S. 109 f. [↩]
That the friars clearly differentiated between those different contexts becomes evident in an almost contemporary case: In 1333/34, the Crown of Aragon found itself in an ongoing war with Genoa (about Sardinia) and planned a crusade against Granada. The Carmelite friar Bernat Despuig was very clear in his sermons: the faithful should pray for the king’s victory in the Granada campaign but not in wars against other Christians. See Adam Franklin-Lyons/Marie Kelleher, Framing Mediterranean Famine, in: Speculum 97,1 (2022), S. 66. [↩]

Converso Unbelief in Fortalitium Fidei by Friar Alonso de Espina

Thomas Hendrik Kaal, Queen Mary University London

Zusammenfassung: In seinem Werk Fortalitium Fidei (c. 1464) entwirft der Franziskanermönch Alonso de Espina eine neue Konzeption der Häresie des Judaisierens. Anstatt Judaisieren lediglich als klandestine Fortführung jüdischer Glaubensvorstellungen und Praktiken zu verstehen, sah er darin eine noch schlimmere häretische Verirrung. Den judaisierenden conversos warf er vor, jedwede religiöse Tradition aufgegeben zu haben und der zuerst von Epikur vertretenen Überzeugung zu folgen, dass die menschliche Seele mit dem Tod erlösche. Dieser von Espina propagierte Diskurs bereitete den Weg für die Verknüpfung zwischen den Neuen Christen und der Leugnung der Unsterblichkeit, die sich später in den Akten der Spanischen Inquisition gegen Ende des 15. Jahrhunderts nachweisen lässt.

Abstract: In his Fortalitium Fidei (c. 1464), the Franciscan friar Alonso de Espina outlines a new conception of the Judaizing heresy. Instead of seeing Judaizing merely as a clandestine continuation of Jewish beliefs and practices, he saw it as an even worse heretical aberration. He argued that most conversos had abandoned all religious traditions, sharing the conviction, first held by Epicurus, that the human soul expires after death. Espina’s discourse paved the way for the link between the New Christians and the denial of immortality, which can be observed in the files of the Spanish Inquisition produced at the end of the 15^th century.

The trial records of the Spanish Inquisition feature an astonishing number of people who were accused of not believing in the immortality of the soul.¹ The majority of these individuals were conversos, that is to say Iberian Jews who had been forcibly converted to Christianity in the course of the 15th century, as well as their numerous descendants. Brought before the tribunals on suspicion of Judaizing, these conversos seem to have disregarded both the Christian and the Judaic religion.² Instead of following either of the two laws, they were said to act on the maxim that there was nothing to human life except being born and dying (nada que nascer e morir). Scholars have tended to interpret such testimonies as evidence of a secret current of religious skepticism among the New Christians, sometimes called ‘popular Averroism’.³ The alleged disbelief in immortality is seen as a precursor of subsequent religion-skeptical tendencies among the descendants of Iberian Jews, culminating in the skeptical philosophy of 16-century Marranos such as Uriel da Costa and Baruch de Spinoza.⁴

This article forms part of an ongoing research project that re-examines the relationship between conversos and religious skepticism in 15^th century Castile. It aims to show that disbelief in immortality formed part of a stereotypical view of the New Christians, which emerged decades before the first inquisitorial tribunal began its work in Castile.⁵

One of the first contemporary authors to associate conversos with disbelief in immortality was the Franciscan friar Alonso de Espina (c.1410–1465). His magnum opus bears the programmatic title Fortalitium Fidei contra iudeos, saracenos aliosque christiane fidei inimicos (“The Fortress of Faith against Jews, Saracens and all other Enemies of the Christian Faith”).⁶ The text was one of the most ambitious heresiological treatises written in the late Middle Ages. It exposes what the Franciscan perceived as the war of Christianity against its various enemies: Jews, Muslims, heretics, and demonic forces, each of which are dealt with separately in one of five books. Espina paints the bleak picture of a society under siege: as depicted in the above illustration, Jews would attack the fortress of faith with their blind rejection of the gospel, Muslims would threaten the Christian kingdoms with war and demons wreak havoc like never before; but worst of all, the foundations of the faith were about to be completely undermined by heretics. Here, Espina pointed to the conversos as the main threat to religious orthodoxy. He argued that the majority of New Christians had succumbed to a particularly wicked heretical deviation, which would even exceed the blind unbelief of the Jews.⁷

For Alonso de Espina, the Judaizing heresy of the conversos was far worse than a simple relapse to Jewish customs. He conceptualized it as a deliberate denial of all religious traditions. Rendering the results of an alleged Toledan inquiry, the friar claimed that many New Christians had abandoned both the Jewish and the Christian law. They would consider the teachings of the church to be a massive swindle (truffa) and disregard both the Old and New Testament as silly fairytales, written to mislead the simpleminded. Instead of following any of the established religious traditions, the New Christians would deny the afterlife and live only for material pleasure and success. To summarize their wicked irreligiosity, Espina stated that the conversos believed in nothing but “being born and dying”—the very formulation that later featured in the trial records of the Spanish Inquisition.⁸ The friar warned that mortalist ideas as believed by the New Christians could easily spread to other parts of society. He admitted that even the most pious believer might occasionally wonder whether the Christian claims about the afterlife were actually true. Since the devil would constantly try to dissuade people from the true faith, the presence of heretics who denied immortality posed an immediate threat to the inner stability of a Christian society. The spread of mortalist ideas thus had to be stopped at all costs. Espina argued vehemently that the only way was to establish a general inquisition in Castile, which should put an end to the Judaizing heresy.⁹

Fortalitium Fidei had a considerable impact on the debate about the New Christians in the last decades of the 15^thcentury. Following the argument set out by Alonso de Espina, disbelief in immortality emerged as a distinctive feature of crypto-Judaism. Scholars like Ana Echevarría have argued that Fortalitium Fidei served as an important handbook for the early Spanish Inquisition.¹⁰ This would explain why many first-generation inquisitors categorized disbelief in immortality as tantamount to Judaizing. Rather than evidencing an averroistic current among the conversos, the plethora of mortalist statements recorded by inquisitors thus seems to point to the cultural hinterland that gave rise to the inquisition in the first place. The testimonies demonstrate that in the context of inter-religious conversion, radical unbelief served as a particularly effective accusation to vilify any form of religious deviance.

Photo: Alfonso de Espina, Fortalitium Fidei, Basel 1475, in: ourheritage.ac.nz, URL: [https://otago.ourheritage.ac.nz/items/show/6330] (01.02.2023).

See for example the evidence from Soria, El Tribunal de la Inquisición en el Obispado de Soria (1486–1502), Carlos CARRETE PARRONDO (ed.), (Fontes Iudaeorum Regni Castellae, 7), 1985, Salamanca. The records have been anaylized by MONSALVO ANTON, José M. 1984: »Herejia conversa y contestacion religiosa a fines de la Edad Media. Las denuncias a la Inquisicion en el obispado de Osma«, Studia historica: historia medieval, Vol. 2, pp. 109–138 and EDWARDS, John 1988: »Religious Faith and Doubt in Late Medieval Spain. Soria circa 1450–1500«, Past & Present, Vol. 120, pp. 3–25. [↩]
See PASTORE, Stefania 2016: »Doubt in Fifteenth-Century Iberia«, in GARCÍA-ARENAL, Mercedes (ed.), After Conversion. Iberia and the Emergence of Modernity, Leiden, pp. 283–303. [↩]
MÁRQUEZ VILLANUEVA, Francisco 1994: »Nasçer e morir como bestias (criptojudaísmo y criptoaverroísmo)«, in DÍAZ ESTEBAN, Fernando (ed.), Los judaízantes en Europa y la literatura castellana del siglo de oro, Madrid, pp. 273–293. [↩]
This interpretation has been spearheaded by NIEWÖHNER, Friedrich 1988: Veritas sive varietas. Lessings Toleranzparabel und das Buch Von den drei Betrügern, (Bibliothek der Aufklärung, 5), Heidelberg and YOVEL, Yirmiyahu 2009: The Other Within. The Marranos: Split Identity and Emerging Modernity, Princeton. [↩]
The project ties in with the methodology of WELTECKE, Dorothea 2010: “Der Narr spricht: Es ist kein Gott”. Atheismus, Unglauben und Glaubenszweifel vom 12. Jahrhundert bis zur Neuzeit, (Campus historische Studien, 57), Frankfurt am Main. [↩]
The earliest Latin manuscript, preserved in the Archive of the Burgo de Osma Cathedral, dates back to 1464 (Codex No. 154). All quotations in this article are from the 1487 incunabulum of the work printed in Lyon. [↩]
On Jews and heretics in Fortalitium Fidei see CAVALLERO, Constanza 2016: Los enemigos del fin del mundo. Judíos, herejes y demonios en el Fortalitium Fidei de Alonso de Espina (Castilla, siglo XV), Buenos Aires. and VIDAL DOVAL, Rosa 2015: Misera Hispania. Jews and Conversos in Alonso de Espina’s Fortalitium Fidei, (Medium aevum monographs, 31). [↩]
“Sexta, quod fides catholica erat quedam truffa et quod nihil aliud erat in hac vita nisi nasci et mori et quod totum aliud vanitas erat”, Alonso de Espina, Fortalitium Fidei, II, 6, 1, f. 53 v.a. [↩]
“et specialiter iuxta posse suum laborat quod faciat eum dubitare quod sit altera vita nisi hec, et quod debeat fieri resurrectio mortuorum, quia si hoc facit eum credere vel in hoc dubitare, statim homo sic deceptus dimittit se cadere in omnem peccatum, et elongatur ab omni virtute, et perdit omnem timorem et amorem Dei, et vivit desperatus qui perdidit totam fidem et spem Dei”, Alonso de Espina, Fortalitium Fidei, II, 6, 13, f. 63 v.a. [↩]
Echevaria, Ana 2022: »The Perception of the Religious Other in Alonso de Espina’s Fortalitium Fidei: A Tool for Inquisitors?«, in Constable, Olivia Remie (ed.), Interfaith relationships and perceptions of the other in the medieval Mediterranean. Essays in memory of Olivia Remie Constable(Mediterranean perspectives), Basingstoke, pp. 161–195. [↩]